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Review Article
Current Clinical Applications of Entecavir in Hepatitis B Viruses Infection
Issue:
Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
68-84
Received:
27 October 2025
Accepted:
7 November 2025
Published:
17 December 2025
Abstract: Entecavir (ETV) is a guanosine nucleoside analogue widely used in the management of chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection. It demonstrates consistent antiviral activity, favourable tolerability, and a high genetic barrier to resistance, making it a reliable option across diverse clinical settings. Evidence from clinical trials and real-world studies confirms that ETV achieves sustained viral suppression, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) normalization, and histological improvement, contributing to reduced long-term risks of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Its pharmacokinetic properties and antiviral effectiveness have been established in both treatment-naïve and lamivudine-resistant patients. ETV maintains clinical utility in various special populations, including individuals with decompensated cirrhosis, chronic kidney disease, post-transplant status, and those receiving immunosuppressive therapy. In these groups, ETV retains efficacy with limited drug-drug interactions and a generally mild adverse-event profile. Optimal adherence to therapy remains essential to ensure sustained viral suppression and minimize the risk of treatment failure. In addition to established clinical roles, emerging research has explored new formulations and potential therapeutic applications of ETV, including long-acting delivery strategies and its possible relevance in oncologic contexts. These developments highlight continued interest in optimizing the use of ETV in HBV management. Overall, ETV remains a well-supported antiviral agent that combines durable efficacy, safety, and broad applicability in the treatment of chronic HBV infection.
Abstract: Entecavir (ETV) is a guanosine nucleoside analogue widely used in the management of chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection. It demonstrates consistent antiviral activity, favourable tolerability, and a high genetic barrier to resistance, making it a reliable option across diverse clinical settings. Evidence from clinical trials and real-world st...
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Case Report
Hookworm - Associated Iron Deficiency Anemia at Age Extremes: Two Case Reports from North Sulawesi, Indonesia
Diana Shintawati Purwanto
,
Josef Sem Berth Tuda*
Issue:
Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
85-92
Received:
6 November 2025
Accepted:
20 November 2025
Published:
19 December 2025
Abstract: Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most common form of anemia worldwide and remains a significant health concern in tropical countries where parasitic infections are endemic. Hookworm infestation is a leading but frequently overlooked etiology due to its subtle clinical manifestations and limited routine parasitological testing. We describe two contrasting cases of severe hookworm-related IDA from North Sulawesi, Indonesia: a 72-year-old woman and a 1-year-old infant. Both patients presented with profound microcytic hypochromic anemia but without overt gastrointestinal bleeding. Laboratory evaluation confirmed severe iron deficiency, while stool microscopy revealed hookworm eggs at early cleavage stages, establishing the diagnosis. Despite similar causes, their clinical courses diverged. The infant, whose anemia was compounded by inadequate weaning nutrition, responded rapidly to transfusion, iron supplementation, and single-dose albendazole. The elderly patient, with chronic cumulative exposure from barefoot walking in rural areas, improved more slowly following transfusion, prolonged iron therapy, and a short course of albendazole. These cases highlight the need for routine stool examination in all patients with unexplained IDA in endemic areas, regardless of age. They further emphasize gaps in deworming programs, which often exclude high-risk groups such as infants and older adults. Expanding preventive measures is essential to reduce morbidity and long-term complications.
Abstract: Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most common form of anemia worldwide and remains a significant health concern in tropical countries where parasitic infections are endemic. Hookworm infestation is a leading but frequently overlooked etiology due to its subtle clinical manifestations and limited routine parasitological testing. We describe two co...
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Review Article
3P in Diagnostics of Viral Infections: Principles, Platforms, and Practice
Hassan Albargy*
Issue:
Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
93-104
Received:
2 December 2025
Accepted:
11 December 2025
Published:
29 December 2025
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijidt.20251004.13
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Abstract: Accurate and timely viral diagnostics are central to modern clinical care and public health surveillance, guiding patient management, outbreak control, and population-level interventions. Even though advanced molecular technologies such as RT-qPCR, next-generation sequencing, and CRISPR-based assays have transformed viral detection, the diagnostic performance is shaped not only by analytical platforms but by the integrated flow of principles, platforms, and practice (3P framework). In essence, specimen type, timing of collection, transport conditions, and storage critically influence diagnostic sensitivity, which accounts for up to 60-70% of errors before laboratory analysis even begins. Direct detection approaches, including RT-qPCR, digital PCR, sequencing, and antigen assays, are examined as complementary tools rather than competing technologies, each occupying specialized clinical and public health niches. Indirect detection through serological and cellular immune assays is reviewed as a means of assessing exposure, immunity, and population-level transmission. The practical application of diagnostics is further discussed in key clinical contexts, including acute respiratory infections, chronic viral diseases, and arboviral illnesses, highlighting the importance of algorithmic testing strategies and epidemiological context. The real-world interpretation challenges are addressed, that emphasize on the pretest probability, false-positive and false-negative risks. Limitations of current evidence, including variability in study design, lack of standardization, and underrepresentation of low-resource settings, are critically assessed. Finally, emerging technologies such as CRISPR diagnostics, microfluidics, and lab-on-chip platforms are discussed as drivers of decentralized, rapid, and globally accessible testing. When biological principles, diagnostic technologies, and real-world clinical practice are considered together, it becomes clear that the true effectiveness of viral diagnostics does not rest on analytical performance alone. Rather, meaningful impact depends on how well diagnostic tools are integrated into everyday clinical decision making and public health systems. Looking ahead, the greatest advances are likely to come from diagnostic ecosystems that combine rapid detection with real-time data sharing and context-aware interpretation. Such an interconnected approach has the potential to transform viral diagnostics from isolated laboratory tests into continuous safeguards for both individual patients and population health. This review synthesizes current evidence across all stages of viral diagnostics, with particular emphasis on the often-overlooked pre-analytical and interpretative phases that dominate real world diagnostic error.
Abstract: Accurate and timely viral diagnostics are central to modern clinical care and public health surveillance, guiding patient management, outbreak control, and population-level interventions. Even though advanced molecular technologies such as RT-qPCR, next-generation sequencing, and CRISPR-based assays have transformed viral detection, the diagnostic ...
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Research Article
Naturally Acquired Immune Responses to Antigens of the Sexual and Asexual Stages of Plasmodium Falciparum in the Southern and Central Regions of Senegal
Lam Aminata*,
Lo Aminata Colle,
Patterson Catriona,
Sylla Khadime,
Kebe Khadime,
Gaye Ndeye Aida,
Manga Isaac Akhenaton,
Lelo Souleye,
Fall Cheikh Binetou,
Diouf Marie Pierre,
Minlekib Carole Pab,
Tine Roger Clement,
Gaye Omar,
Drakeley Chris,
Faye Babacar
Issue:
Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
105-117
Received:
9 November 2025
Accepted:
2 December 2025
Published:
30 December 2025
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijidt.20251004.14
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Abstract: In Senegal, despite numerous malaria control interventions, transmission is still seasonal. Malaria transmission depends on the presence of infectious parasites in the sexual stage in human peripheral blood. Immune responses acquired naturally at these or other stages can affect malaria transmission, resulting in protection against malaria, reduced transmission, and also form the basis for the development of transmission-blocking vaccines. To evaluate the antibody response profile against the asexual antigens PfAMA1, PfMSP119, Pf GLURP R2 and the sexual antigens Pfs230C1, Pfs48.45.6C in inhabitants naturally exposed to malaria in areas with different levels of transmission in Senegal. A cross-sectional study was carried out at the end of the transmission season in central (Keur Socé) and southern (Saraya) Senegal in 2018. We included 1106 asymptomatic volunteers aged 5 and over. Capillary blood was collected from each participant for an RDT, 2 slides for microscopy and a dried blood spot samples for immunology. A Luminex serological multiplex bead assay was then used to assess Plasmodium falciparum seroprevalence Our study population was characterized by a very young population with a median age of 12 15 years. The parasite prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum was 21.75% and 2.75% by RDT and 22.1% and 2.2% by microscopy for the southern and central regions respectively. Two other plasmodial species were found in Saraya, with prevalences of 1.61% for P. malariae and 0.18% for P. ovale. The mean seroprevalences of antibodies against three asexual blood-stage antigens (PfAMA1, PfGLURP and PfMSP119) and two sexualstage antigens (Pfs48.45.6C and Pfs230C1) were significantly higher in Saraya. In Keur Socé, the mean seroprevalence of antibodies against the PfAMA1 antigen was highest (1.83%), while in Saraya, PfMSP119 was highest (49.91%). The antigenicity of these proteins depended on endemicity levels, as antibody prevalence was statistically different in the two sites and increased with transmission intensity. With the exception of anti-Pfs48.45.6C antibody levels, all other antibody responses increased with age. Overall, these data indicate that the seroprevalence and antivody levels of individuals with antibodies recognizing all five antigens increase with exposure to infection, and that these antibodies may contribute to immunity against parasites. Children receiving SMC should also be monitored, as we have noted a loss of immunity in this group.
Abstract: In Senegal, despite numerous malaria control interventions, transmission is still seasonal. Malaria transmission depends on the presence of infectious parasites in the sexual stage in human peripheral blood. Immune responses acquired naturally at these or other stages can affect malaria transmission, resulting in protection against malaria, reduced...
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